Friday, December 27, 2019

The Cooperative Principle in Conversation

In conversation analysis, the cooperative principle is the assumption that participants in a conversation normally attempt to be informative, truthful, relevant, and clear. The concept was introduced by philosopher H. Paul Grice in his 1975 article Logic and Conversation in which he argued that talk exchanges were not merely a succession of disconnected remarks, and would not be rational if they were. Grice suggested instead that meaningful dialogue is characterized by cooperation. Each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common purpose or set of purposes, or at least a mutually accepted direction. Key Takeaways: Grice's Conversational Maxims Grice expanded his cooperative principle with the four following conversational maxims, which he believed anyone wishing to engage in meaningful, cogent conversation must follow:Quantity: Say no less than the conversation requires. Say no more than the conversation requires.Quality: Dont say what you believe to be false. Dont say things for which you lack evidence.Manner: Dont be obscure. Dont be ambiguous. Be brief. Be orderly.Relevance: Be relevant. Observations on the Cooperative Principle Here are some thoughts on the Cooperative Principle from some acknowledged sources on the subject: We might then formulate a rough general principle which participants will be expected (ceteris paribus) to observe, namely: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. One might label this the Cooperative Principle.(From Logic and Conversation by H. Paul Grice) [T]he  sum and substance of the Cooperative  Principle might be put this way: Do whatever is necessary to achieve the purpose of your talk; dont do anything that will frustrate that purpose.(From Communication and Reference by Aloysius Martinich) People undoubtedly can be tight-lipped, long-winded, mendacious, cavalier, obscure, ambiguous, verbose, rambling, or off-topic. But on closer examination, they are far less so than they could be, given the possibilities. . . Because human hearers can count on some degree of adherence to the maxims, they can read between the lines, weed out unintended ambiguities, and connect the dots when they listen and read.(From The Stuff of Thought by Steven Pinker) Cooperation vs. Agreeableness According to Istvan Kecskes,  author of Intercultural Pragmatics, there is a distinction between cooperative communication and being cooperative on a social level.  Kecskes believes that the Cooperative Principle isnt about being positive or socially smooth or agreeable, but rather, its a presumption when someone speaks, they have the expectation as well the intention of communicating. Likewise, they expect the person to whom theyre speaking to facilitate the effort. This is why even when people fight or disagree to the point that those engaged in the conversation are being less than pleasant or cooperative, the Cooperative Principle keeps the conversation going. Even if individuals are aggressive, self-serving, egotistic, and so on, Kecskes explains, and not quite focusing on the other participants of the interaction, they cant have spoken at all to someone else without expecting that something would come out of it, that there would be some result, and that the other person/s was/were engaged with them. Kecskes maintains that this core principle of intent is essential to communication. Example: Jack Reachers Telephone Conversation The operator answered  and I asked for Shoemaker  and I got transferred, maybe elsewhere in the building, or the country, or the world, and after a bunch of clicks  and hisses and some long minutes of dead air Shoemaker came on the line and said Yes? This is Jack Reacher, I said. Where are you? Dont you have all kinds of automatic machines to tell you that? Yes, he said. Youre in Seattle, on a payphone  down by the fish market. But we prefer it when people volunteer the information themselves. We find that makes the subsequent conversation go better. Because theyre already cooperating. Theyre invested. In what? The conversation. Are we having a conversation? Not really.(From Personal by Lee Child.) The Lighter Side of the Cooperative Principle Sheldon Cooper: Ive been giving the matter some thought, and I think Id be willing to be a house pet to a race of superintelligent aliens.​ Leonard Hofstadter: Interesting.​ Sheldon Cooper: Ask me why?​ Leonard Hofstadter: Do I have to?​ Sheldon Cooper: Of course. Thats how you move a conversation forward.(From an exchange between Jim Parsons and  Johnny Galecki, The Financial Permeability episode of The Big Bang Theory, 2009) Sources Grice, H. Paul. Logic and Conversation. Syntax and Semantics, 1975. Reprinted in Studies in the Way of Words. Harvard University  Press, 1989Martinich, Aloysius.  Communication and Reference.  Walter de Gruyter, 1984Pinker, Steven. The Stuff of Thought. Viking, 2007Kecskes,  Istvan. Intercultural Pragmatics. Oxford University Press,  2014

Thursday, December 19, 2019

The Differences Between Bureaucracy And Democracy - 759 Words

Throughout the first part of this semester we have read and discussed several topics relating to Public Administration. In this essay I will discuss the differences between bureaucracy, democracy, and citizenships, how these three topics effect our society, and current issues within local governments. Before one can begin to understand the issues between bureaucracy, democracy, and citizens, we must first define each word. Starting with the word citizen, as it is the easiest to define. A citizen is someone who is a legal resident of a specific area (i.e. town, city, county, state, or country). The second definition is democracy which is a way to run a government so that citizens have a vested interest in the decision making process through the process of electing representatives. This is what the United States of America is based upon, regularly held elections for citizens to vote upon who will represent their needs, wishes, and desires. Lastly, bureaucracy is, a system within our democratic government, which is used to delegate non-elected individuals who will enforce and oversee decisions made by our elected representatives. Therefore, one could say, a bureaucrat is a Public Administrator because they are non-elected, state employees whose job is to create, enact, and oversee policies for decisions made by our government. So, to summarize, local representatives are chosen by citizens through the use of democracy and the policies approved through our democratic systemShow MoreRelatedBureaucracy Is An Efficient System Bureaucracy1715 Words   |  7 Pagesonce said This passion for bureaucracy ... is enough to drive one to despair. It s as if in politics...we were deliberately to become men who need order and nothing but order (www.goodreads.com). Max Weber brings attention to the consequences of bureaucracy. 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Wednesday, December 11, 2019

Hbs Case Study Guid free essay sample

What is the point of these cases? Contrary to what some might think, cases are not just another tool used by firms to weed people out of the burgeoning volume of applicants. They are in fact an excellent indicator of how good you will be as a consultant, pure and simple. Almost everyday, consultants face the kinds of problems and questions often presented in these cases. Often times, tough problem-solving questions are asked face-to-face by their clients, under pressure, with the expectations of receiving some answers. The case is usually a business situation where the client is facing a difficult problem with the company/product/competitors or is thinking of a new opportunity to explore and asks you to help address some of the issues. The case can be a problem, a situation, a riddle, an example of a real client situation, a contrived scenario, or a game—all rapped up into one. It is an exercise for the firms to test your analytical thinking and to examine how well you can handle problem-solving questions. It is also a great opportunity for you to determine whether consulting is actually right for you. If you do not enjoy problem-solving case interviews, the likelihood that you will enjoy consulting is fairly small. Because it is an exercise in problem solving, the case is not about finding the right or wrong answer, but rather about the method you use to derive your answer. It is about the questions you raise, the assumptions you make, the issues you identify, the areas of exploration you prioritize, the frameworks you use, the creativity involved, the logical solution you recommend, and the confidence and poise you present. HBS Case Interview Guide, Page 1 The case also gives a strong indication of your personality in that type of setting. Aside from the problem-solving skills listed above, the interviewer uses the case to determine whether the firm would feel comfortable putting you in front of a client. Would you be able to handle a client situation with confidence when presented with a similar situation? Also, the interviewer wants to see if you have fun solving problems. They want to see enthusiasm from you when faced with ambiguity and tough issues. Consultants almost always work in teams and the questions the interviewer is asking him/herself are: Would I want to staff this person on my team? Would I have fun working with him/her? So make sure you are relaxed and have fun. There are many types of cases that firms use. This guide covers some of the frameworks and concepts that would help you tackle most cases that come your way. No case ever fits perfectly into a type, like marketing or strategy. Most of the cases presented cover a number of concepts that would range from market sizing and operations to economics. This guide provides a review of major frameworks and concepts that will be very helpful in Cracking the Case. HBS Case Interview Guide, Page 2 Overview of Case Frameworks A complete understanding of the frameworks and concepts covered in this section is critical to conducting a successful case interview. Most Plans of Attack in Cracking the Case use at least one framework, often times several, to decipher the problem at hand and recommend a solution. NOTE: It is also very important for you NOT to directly apply these frameworks, i. e. you should never say during a case interview, Im going to use the 4Cs framework, or Ill be applying Porters Five Forces. This approach indicates no creative or analytical thought on your part! The more comfortable you become with these frameworks, the more you will start to develop your own and customize them according to the nature of the case. Remember, the interviewer is not looking for you to apply a cookie cutter approach to each case. You are exp ected to make sound judgment as to which frameworks are appropriate and what components of those frameworks are most applicable to the problem at hand. Frameworks are mere enablers that organize and guide your thinking. They are not the driving force behind the solutions and they certainly are not the solution themselves. The combination of your own intelligence, creativity, and preparation are the driving forces! HBS Case Interview Guide, Page 3 Porter’s Five Forces Source: Michael E. Porter, -Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors Michael Porters Five Forces is probably the most famous framework used in preparing for the case interviews. It has endured as one of the frameworks most talked about by many in and out of the consulting field. Although the Five Forces is an excellent framework in helping you organize you thoughts, like any other framework we cover in this guide, its analysis is not complete. The Five Forces should be used in conjunction with other frameworks to enable you to fully understand the issues at hand. Further, we only briefly touch on this framework here, but we have included more detailed material of Porters work later in this guide. New Entrants Competitive advantage in an industry is dependent on five primary forces: x The threat of new entrants x The bargaining power of buyers/customers x The bargaining power of suppliers x The threat of substitute products x Rivalry with competitors The degree of these threats determines the attractiveness of the market: x Intense competition allows minimal profit margins x Mild competition allows wider profit margins The goal is to assess whether a company should enter/exit the industry or find a position in the industry where it can best defend itself against these forces or can influence them in its favor. Buyers Competitive Rivalry Suppliers Substitute Products HBS Case Interview Guide, Page 4 Porter’s Five Forces Source: Michael E. Porter, Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors Barriers to Entry: There are a number of factors that determine the degree of difficulty in entering an industry: x Economies of scale x Product differentiation x Capital requirements vs. switching costs x Access to distribution channels x Cost advantages independent of scale x Proprietary product technology x Favorable access to raw materials x Favorable location x Government subsidies x Learning curve x Government policy Relationship with Suppliers: A supplier group is powerful if: x It is not obliged to contend with other substitute products for sales in the industry x The industry is not an important customer of the supplier group x The supplier group is an important input to the buyers business x The supplier groups products are differentiated or it has built up switching costs x The supplier group poses a credible threat of forward integration Substitute Products: Substitute products that deserve the most attention are those that: x Compete in price with the industrys products x Are produced by industries earning high profits Rivalry: Rivalry among existing competitors increases if: x Numerous or equally balanced competitors exist x Industry growth is slow x Fixed costs are high x There is lack of differentiation or switching costs x Capacity is augmented in large increments Relationship with Buyers: A buyer group is powerful if: x It is concentrated or purchases large volumes relative to sellers sales x The products it purchases front the industry are standard or undifferentiated x It faces few switching costs x Buyers pose a credible threat of backward integration x The industrys product is unimportant to the quality of the buyers products or services x The buyer has full information HBS Case Interview Guide, Page 5 Marketing/Strategy Concepts Review – Overview The Marketing/Strategy Concepts Review Module attempts to enable the interviewee with skills needed to evaluate the case from the perspective of a senior executive.

Tuesday, December 3, 2019

Liberalism vs Socialism free essay sample

There have been many ways man has lead man throughout history. Some chaotic and involved a lot of blood. Others have lead society into greatness and peace. One form of government is liberalism which comes from the word of freedom, liberty. There are two types of liberalism, classical and modern liberalism. Classical liberalism contains roots from Jock Locke of the seventeenth century and Adam Smith of the eighteenth century. Modern liberalism had been tinkered and modified by theorists like Jane Adams and T. H. Green. Another type of government is socialism which was introduced around the early nineteenth century. Socialists view was meeting basic needs of the entire society, thus the name socialism. Two types of socialism include Marxism-Leninism and social democracy. There are key differences between classical and the new defined modern liberalism. In classical liberalism, the people are more important than the state. People have their own rights and the sole purpose of government is to protect and enforce that. We will write a custom essay sample on Liberalism vs Socialism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Individuals are capable of making their own decisions which makes them capable of autonomy. One of the big differences is the outlook on economy. Economic inequality is great, it encourages those at the bottom of the economy to work harder which is the fuel of our economy. That encourages immigrants with nothing to get to the top of the economy. Classical liberalism also encourages the economic freedom to freely sell services. Modern liberalism looks at economics from a social point of view. There should be welfare to help those with lower incomes, that way there is more equality in the social workforce. Their views on government are that it should be involved with individuals and social life to prevent people from denying freedom to others. Modern liberalism looks at liberty from a broader view. It seeks out ways to hone human potentials and contribute to the society. Socialism’s approach to government may be seen as the opposite of liberalism. Instead of fitting the needs of individuals, it fits the needs of the society as a whole. There are two views of socialism, Marxism-Leninism and social democracy. Marxism-Leninism is about having a centralized vanguard party and that there is no need to be ran through a peaceful and lawful political participation. As for social democracy, socialism is run through a peaceful and lawful political participation. Democracy and socialism in this view run very consistently with each other. Social democracy’s view of politics is about equality. Government promotes economic equality no more or less than it promotes political equality. Marxism-Leninism does not run political equality the same as social democracy. Their development of capitalism is influenced by imperialism.